Some are exchanged via small loops of DNA called plasmids.

一基因会通过被称为粒的DNA小环交换。

Additionally to the genetic material contained within the nucleoid, many bacteria contain extra chromosomal DNA molecules called plasmids.

除了包含在拟核中的遗传物外，许多菌含有额外的DNA分子，称为粒。

Then they dropped the plasmid into a living bacterium, or yeast.

然后他们将粒放入活菌或酵母中。

However, plasmids often contain genes that confer a selective advantage to the bacterium such as resistance to antibiotics.

不过粒通常包含菌选择性优势的基因，例如抗生素耐药性。

These plasmids are small double-stranded DNA molecules that can exist independently of the chromosome and they can be circular or linear.

它们是双链的DNA小分子，可以独立于菌染色体（拟核）存在，可以是环状或线状的。

The plasmid enters and multiplies itself within a cell and can then be transferred to others.

粒进入胞并在胞内繁殖， 然后可以转移到其他胞中。

So essentially, these plasmids are the vehicles that transfer genes for antibiotic resistance between different bacterial species.

因此本上，粒是在不同菌物种之间转移抗生素抗性基因的载体。

This plasmid mutation has been seen in other places before; in China, in animals and some human patients.

种粒突变以前在其他地方也见过；在中国，在动物和一人类患者中。

Transfer of the ligated plasmid into an E. coli strain (transformation).

7。转化成功的菌的筛选。

The cDNAs had to be linked to prokaryotic transcription and translation signals and inserted into multicopy plasmids.

然，占总蛋白30%的过量表达的蛋白是沉淀或不溶的形式并且缺少翻译后修饰。

This one had cell culture and transfections, antibodies, plasmids, recombinant virus production and infection, and so on and so forth.

个有胞培养和转染、抗体、粒、重组病毒生产和感染等等。

Plasmids have relatively few genes and their genetic information is not essential to the bacterium and cells that lack them usually function normally.

粒所含的基因相对较少，并且它们的基因对菌来说并不是必须的，缺少粒的胞往往也可以正常生长。

Soon after, others began using plasmid vectors and adding genes for antibiotic resistance, greatly increasing the reach of the recombinant techniques. [81]

不久之后，其他人开始使用粒载体并添加抗生素抗性基因，大大增加了重组技术的应用范围[81]。

But this is the first time the plasmid has been found in the United States, and it could get passed around quickly.

但是第一次在美国发现种粒，它可能会很快传播开来。

More specialized vectors have been engineered to use aspects of plasmids and bacteriophages, such as the plasmid-bacteriophage h hybrids known as cosmids

粒和噬菌体已经在很多种类的菌中被使用来表达基因，并且一噬菌体也许已经被用来将DNA整合到宿主基因组上。

Phage h can be used to clone fragments larger than plasmid vectors, and phage M13 allows cloned DNA to be isolated in single-stranded form.

更多载体被改造能同时拥有粒和噬菌体的一特性，像被称为粘粒的粒-噬菌体λ杂交体。

Or, in plain english, plasmids are part of the reason that, one day, antibiotics may not be able to help your strep throat anymore.

或者，用简单的英语来说，粒是有一天抗生素可能无法再帮助您治疗链球菌性咽喉炎的部分原因。

I did all these experiments actually, with my own hands, I was 58 years old, I was still culturing plasmids and feeding cells, so it is very unlikely.

实际上，所有实验都是我亲手做的，当时我 58 岁，我还在培养粒和喂养胞，所以是非常不可能的。

The cytoplasm contains ribosomes which are the site of protein synthesis, the nucleoid which contains the genetic material, and plasmids which contain genes that confer a selective advantage to the bacterium.

胞中含有核糖体，它们是蛋白合成的部位；拟核含有遗传物以及粒；粒含有菌选择性优势的基因。

Plasmid and phage vectors have been used to express genes in a range of bacteria, and some phages may be used to incorporate DNA into the host genome.

在培养的真核胞中，载体通常选择能感染特定生物的病毒，有保持它们的DNA独立于宿主染色体之外，有整合到宿主基因组上。